integrated circuit

electronics

Integrated circuits (IC), also known as microelectronic circuits, microchips, or chips, are electronic component components, manufactured as a single unit, with miniaturized active devices (e. g., transistors and diodes) and passive devices (e. g., capacitors and resistors) and their interconnections built on thin substrates of semiconductor materials (usually silicon). Thus, the resulting circuit is a small, monolithic "chip" that can be as small as a few square centimeters or only a few square millimeters. The dimensions of individual circuit elements are usually microscopic. 

Transistor
The IC originated in 1947 when William b Shackley and his team at AT & T Bell Laboratories invented the transistor. Shockley's team (including John Badin and Walter h Bratton) found that when appropriate, electrons formed a barrier on the surface of certain crystals and that they learned to control the current passing through the crystal. By controlling the flow of electronics in the crystal, the team could create a device that could perform certain electronic operations, such as signal amplification, which was previously done by vacuum tubes. They named the device a transistor, consisting of a combination of word transmission and resistance. Research on methods for manufacturing electronic devices using solid materials is called solid-state electronics. Solid-state equipment proved stronger, easier to work, more reliable, smaller, and cheaper than vacuum tubes. Using the same principles and materials, engineers quickly learned to make other electrical components, such as resistors and capacitors. Now electronic devices can be made so small that the largest part of the circuit is the clumsy wiring between the devices. 

In 1958, Jack Kilby of Texas Instruments and Robert Noyes of Fairchild Semiconductor independently proposed a method to further downsize the circuit. They put metal (usually aluminum or copper) directly on the same piece of material in their equipment. These little paths are just like electric wires. Using this technology, the entire circuit can be "integrated" into a piece of solid material, resulting in an integrated circuit (IC). Integrated circuits can contain hundreds of thousands of individual transistors on a single chip to make pea-sized materials. Using so many vacuum tubes would be impractical, awkward, and expensive. The invention of integrated circuits makes technology in the information age feasible. Integrated circuits are now widely used in all walks of life, from cars to toasters to amusement park rides.

Basic IC types

Analog versus digital circuits

Analog circuits, or linear circuits, typically use only a few components and are therefore some of the simplest integrated circuit types. In general, analog circuits are connected to devices that collect signals from the environment or send them back to the environment. For example, a microphone converts fluctuating sounds into electrical signals with varying voltage. The analog circuit then changes the signal in some useful way, such as magnifying or filtering out unwanted noise. Such a signal may be fed back to a speaker that will reproduce the tone that the microphone has initially received. Another typical use of analog circuits is to control certain devices in response to continuous changes in the environment. For example, a temperature sensor sends different signals to a thermostat, which can be programmed to turn on and off the air conditioner, heater, or oven when the signal reaches a certain value.

A digital circuit 

On the other hand, digital circuits are designed to accept only a given value. A circuit that uses only two states is called a binary circuit. The circuit design with binary quantities, "on" and "off" represent 1 and 0 (i. e., true and false), using the logic of Boolean algebra.(Arithmetic is also performed in binary number systems using Boolean algebra.) These fundamental elements are combined in the integrated circuit design of digital computers and related devices to achieve the desired functions

Microprocessor circuits

Microprocessor circuit Microprocessors are the most complex integrated circuits. They consisted of billions of transistors, each being configured into thousands of separate digital circuits, each performing some specific logic functions. A microprocessor consists entirely of these mutually synchronized logic circuits. Microprocessors usually contain the central processing unit (CPU) of a computer. Like military bands, these circuits perform their logical functions under the command of the conductor. The bandwidth administrator in a microprocessor is called a clock. A clock is a signal that rapidly alternates between two logical states. Every time the clock changes its state, every logical circuit in the microprocessor does something. Depending on the speed of the microprocessor (clock frequency). The microprocessor contains some circuits that store information, known as registers. The register is the predetermined memory location. Each processor has many different types of registers. Permanent registers are used to store the preprogrammed instructions required for various operations (such as addition and multiple

 operationsMicroprocessors can perform billions of operations per second on data. In addition to computers, microprocessors are common in video game systems, televisions, cameras, and automobiles
Memory circuits

 Microprocessors typically have to store more data than can be held in a few registers. This additional information is relocated to special memory circuits. Memory is composed of dense arrays of parallel circuits that use their voltage states to store information. Memory also stores the temporary sequence of instructions, or programs, for the microprocessor.

 Manufacturers continually strive to reduce the size of memory circuits—to increase capacity without increasing space. In addition, smaller components typically use less power, operate more efficiently, and cost less to manufacture.